SAUSSURE (1857-1913)
Ferdinand de Saussure was a Swiss philosopher. Saussure is considered one of the founders of modern linguistics. In his work, Course in General Linguistics, he presents important concepts about the structure and functioning of language, and argues that language should be considered as a system. In this context, he states that the meaning of language is based on the relationships between words rather than individual words.
Saussure developed the concept of sign as the basic unit of language. A sign is the relationship between a signifier (sound or word) and a signified (meaning). This relationship determines the meaning of language. Consciousness is dependent on language and is structured by language. The individual is thrown into both the world and a language system.
According to Saussure, who made a distinction between langue (language) and parole (speech), langue refers to language as a social system, while parole refers to the ways in which individuals use language. Saussure emphasizes the importance of both temporal (historical) and spatial (social) dimensions in the study of language. He developed ideas on the evolution of language over time and its uses in different communities.
Structuralism is used as semiotics with its methods applied to sign systems other than linguistic signs. Semiotics can be defined as a discipline that studies the meaning and functioning of signs (signs). Saussure examines how signs create meaning in language, art, media and other forms of communication.
BARTHES (1915-1980)
Roland Barthes was a French philosopher. His structuralist understanding later evolved into poststructuralism. Barthes developed Saussure's theory of semiotics and examined the meaning-producing processes of texts and images. He argues that texts are multi-layered and polysemic. He states that the text is shaped by the meanings created by its reader.
In his article titled The Death of the Text, he argues that the authority of the author has disappeared and the role of the reader in creating meaning has gained importance. In his work titled Mythologies he discusses how images and narratives in modern culture serve ideological functions. In this context, he analyzes the social construction processes of cultural legends.
He argues that literature is not only a form of expression; it is also a game, a structure and a language. He examines literary texts as examples of understanding how language and structure work.
In his work titled Camera Lucida, he presents thoughts on the nature of photography. He analyzes that photography both bears traces of reality and contributes to the processes of creating meaning.
DERRIDA (1930-2004)
Jacques Derrida was a French philosopher. He is known as the founder of the concept of deconstruction. Derrida's works focus on language, text, and meaning.
Assumptions of metaphysics such as existence-non-existence, soul-body, reason-emotion oppositions have overt or covert effects on our way of thinking, decisions we make, and lifestyle. Deconstruction points to the very movement that these assumptions try to control and stop, producing meaning, and enables them to be questioned. Derrida calls this dynamic movement, which he thinks of as a game of differences, différance. This game establishes the meaningfulness not only of speech but also of the world.
According to Derrida, metaphysics understands existence as "presence". The word is much superior to writing in terms of its function of representing presence. Derrida calls this attitude logocentrism. Logocentrism is also a phonocentrism.
According to Derrida, metaphysics first establishes oppositions by subordinating one term to another, and then reconciles the opposing terms through a dialectic. Deconstruction takes texts into close reading, complies with the protocols of the thought it deals with, but at the same time reveals that the boundaries of the text are plural and discontinuous, and opens the way to the possibility of the unthought.
In Deconstruction, metaphysical oppositions are marked, the hierarchy between them is questioned and transformed. It is shown that an undecidability that eventually opens up to polysemy produces metaphysical oppositions. With the emergence of the structure of difference, fundamental concepts such as phenomenological reduction and transcendent consciousness become subject to deconstruction, and phenomenology turns into a post-phenomenology.
Derrida is suspicious of discourses that legitimize civil society, the state, and law. According to him, social contract theories legitimize class differences and inequalities resulting from private property and capital accumulation. According to Derrida, exceptions reveal the truth of norms. In his work titled Specters of Marx, he shows that Marx's discourse is compatible with the philosophy of différance.
Derrida touched on the problem of sovereignty and thought that the sovereignty of multinational corporations and international organizations should be addressed.
FOUCAULT (1926-1984)
Michel Foucault was a French philosopher. Foucault examines how knowledge and power are related to each other. The concept of power knowledge emphasizes how knowledge affects power dynamics within social structures. He analyzes how power operates in modern societies by using the term discipline. In his work Discipline and Punish, he discusses the effects of disciplinary mechanisms on individuals.
Foucault examined how modern states govern and control society and labelled these processes with the concept of biopolitics. Biopolitics deals with the state's effect on human life and its management.
In his studies on the self, he questions how individuals construct their own identities and essences. In this context, he deals with the relationship of the individual with himself from ancient philosophy to the modern period.
Foucault developed archaeological and genealogical methods to understand historical processes. While archaeology tries to understand the intellectual structure of the past by examining the historical layers of knowledge systems, the genealogical approach investigates the historical development of power relations. Foucault also examined the effects of social norms and values on individuals and questioned the boundaries between what is normal and what is abnormal.
LYOTARD (1924-1998)
Jean François Lyotard was a French philosopher. He is one of the leading thinkers of postmodernism. Postmodernism opposes the grand narratives of modern philosophy such as rationalism, ethics, scientism, and liberalism.
In his work The Postmodern Condition, Lyotard questions the validity of the grand narratives of modernism (meta narratives) and emphasizes the importance of numerous small narratives (minör narratives) in society, arguing that language and meaning are shaped by social context. He suggests that meaning is constructed within a specific context and social relations. Lyotard states that social interaction and the production of meaning can be thought of as a "game". In this context, the rules and dynamics of communication are considered as specific games.
The criticism of modernism and totalitarianism has an important place in his thought. Lyotard discusses the effects of globalization and how it is interpreted in cultural, economic, and social contexts. He examines how global communication networks increase pluralism and shape individuals' identities. He draws attention to the commercialization of knowledge (informational mercantilism) and the relationship between knowledge and power.
Lyotard examines the role of aesthetics in postmodern societies, arguing that art offers a space for the emergence of new meanings and experiences rather than the representation of reality. He states that social and cultural structures should be questioned from a critical perspective.
BAUDRILLARD (1929-2007)
Jean Baudrillard was a French philosopher. His most well-known concepts are simulacra and simulation. Simulacra are images or representations that replace reality, take its place and represent it. Simulation, on the other hand, is a new reality created by these simulacra that replace reality.
Baudrillard argues that modern societies are shaped by simulacra and criticizes the consumption-oriented structure of capitalist society. He states that consumption is not limited to purchasing goods, but has also become a part of identity and social relations. Baudrillard argues that it is difficult to separate reality from representation. He states that today, media and cultural images have replaced reality and that this has profound effects on social relations and the perception of individuals.
Baudrillard argues that war has also become a simulation. Media changes the way war is represented, which blurs the boundaries between reality and fiction. His work The Gulf War Did Not Take Place deals with these ideas.
Baudrillard developed the concept of hyperreality. This concept refers to a situation in which reality and simulation are intertwined, changing the way individuals experience reality. In hyperreality, images and representations become more effective than reality itself.
GADAMER (1900-2002)
Hans Georg Gadamer was a German philosopher. Gadamer emphasizes the central role of language in the process of understanding. Language is a fundamental tool for sharing and conveying meaning and is therefore extremely important in a cultural context. He is known for his hermeneutic philosophy.
Hermeneutics focuses on the interpretation of texts and meanings. Gadamer particularly emphasizes how historical and cultural context plays a role in the interpretation of texts. He argues that meaning is not only formed through individual understanding but also through dialogue. Understanding develops when a person goes beyond their own perspective and is enriched by the perspectives of others. Gadamer has a positive approach to the concept of prejudice. Prejudices are important elements that come from individuals' past experiences and shape new meanings. In this context, prejudices can be seen as a tool in the production of meaning.
Gadamer also addresses the interpretation of works of art. Art creates a dialogue between both the artist and the viewer, and this dialogue supports the formation of meaning.
DELEUZE (1925-1995)
Gilles Deleuze was a French philosopher. In Difference and Repetition, one of Deleuze's most important works, he treats repetition and difference as an ontological issue, questioning traditional philosophical ideas and arguing that existence is in a constant state of change and differentiation.
By developing the concept of Rhizome, Deleuze and Guattari express that knowledge and thought are not linear, but multi-layered and networked. Rhizome is a non-hierarchical, irregular and connected way of thinking.
In his work Anti-Oedipus, he criticizes psychoanalysis and discusses how social structures shape individuals' desires. Deleuze and Guattari argue that desire is a liberating force and is suppressed by society. Deleuze defines desire as a machine; in this context, desire is a dynamic part of social structures and relations. This understanding also has an important place in his political and social criticisms.
Deleuze examines how art intertwines with philosophical thought. He states that art is a tool for revealing thought and offering new experiences. He analyzes how cinema represents time and space and the contribution of visual images to thought.