LUKACS (1885-1971)
Georg Lukács was a Hungarian literary critic, literary theorist, Marxist theorist and philosopher. He examined the interaction between the economic structures of societies and cultural and social relations.
The concept of reification describes the materialization of objects and even humans as commodities. Overcoming reification can only be achieved through the class consciousness and praxis of the proletariat. Historical materialism has been considered revisionist by some Marxist thinkers because it emphasizes social and cultural dynamics and distances itself from economic determinism.
BLOCH (1885-1977)
Ernst Bloch was a German philosopher. In his well-known work, Land of Hope, he emphasized the superstructure even though he accepted economic elements as the basis. He distanced himself from dialectical materialism by emphasizing concepts such as the dynamic relationship between the subject and the object, hope, and hunger. According to him, art is a tool that can mobilize people for social change and a better future.
GRAMSCI (1891-1937)
Antonio Gramsci was an Italian philosopher and political theorist. His book Prison Notes, written during his years of imprisonment by the Mussolini regime, contains the outlines of his thoughts and analyzes Marxism, history, culture, and politics.
One of Gramsci's most important contributions is the concept of cultural hegemony. This concept refers to the dominant class in a society spreading its ideology and values and ensuring that other classes accept them.
Gramsci uses the concept of "passive revolution" to understand the processes of social change. This concept implies that revolutions can occur not only through active struggle but also through more indirect means where social changes occur over time.
LEFEBVRE (1901-1991)
Henri Lefebvre was a French philosopher. He produces ideas on a Marxism far removed from dogmatism, based upon dialectical humanism, and the destruction of alienation. He examines how daily life is shaped in modern society and the effects of this life on social structures.
ALTHUSSER (1918-1990)
Louis Althusser was a French philosopher born in Algeria. He reinterpreted Marxism and focused especially on ideology and state theory. One of his most important concepts is ideological state apparatuses. This concept explains the functions of institutions such as education, family, and media to spread the dominant ideology and make individuals part of the social order.
Althusser adopted a structuralist approach. He argues that society should be considered as a structure and examines how individuals are shaped within this structure.
Althusser emphasizes that historical materialism is not limited to economic foundations alone, but also that ideological and cultural elements are important. In addition to the individual having a subjective identity, he investigates how it is shaped by social and political structures.
GRUNBERG (1861-1940)
Karl Grunberg was a German philosopher. He is a member of the Frankfurt School along with Horkheimer, Adorno, Marcuse, Fromm, Habermas and Benjamin.
He interpreted Hegelian dialectics in the context of Marxism and analyzed how historical processes and social transformations take place. He emphasized the determining role of social relations in social sciences and examined how individuals are positioned within the social structure. He defended the importance of philosophical education and was influential on educational systems. He thought that a socialist perspective should be adopted in education.
HORKHEIMER (1895-1973)
Max Horkheimer was a German philosopher. As one of the founding leaders of the Frankfurt School, he laid the foundations of critical theory. He opens up his thoughts in his work Critique of Instrumental Reason.
Critical theory is an approach that combines social sciences, philosophy and Marxism in order to understand and change the structure of society. He investigated the cultural structure of society and how cultural products interact with social relations.
He developed the concept of the culture industry and addressed the effects of mass culture on individuals in modern society. He thought about the role of the individual within social structures and the effects of these structures on the individual. He emphasized the importance of critically questioning social structures for the liberation of the individual.
Horkheimer examined the nature of authority and power, and analyzed the power relations in modern society and the effects of these relations on individuals.
ADORNO (1903-1969)
Theodor W. Adorno was a German philosopher. He wrote the Dialectic of Enlightenment together with Max Horkheimer. The concept of the culture industry addresses how cultural products are standardized in modern capitalist society and how individuals' ways of thinking are shaped.
Adorno examined the role of art in social criticism and the effect of art on individuals. He argued that art has a liberating potential. In his work titled Aesthetic Theory, he describes the work of art as a moment when truth can be viewed from the outside. It introduces us to pain and points out ways to eliminate it.
MARCUSE (1898-1979)
Herbert Marcuse was a German philosopher. He thinks that social structures prevent individuals from having real freedom. He argues that individuals and groups need to have a revolutionary consciousness in order to make social change possible. He influenced the social movements of the 1960s and established close relations with the youth and feminist movements in this context.
He suggests that the promise of progress and freedom of the Enlightenment also led to the creation of an oppressive social structure. The critique of Enlightenment thought is an important part of his philosophical works.
Marcuse also addresses the role of art and cultural products in social change. He argues that art can be a tool to question oppressive social structures and to contribute to the liberation of individuals.
FROMM (1900-1980)
Erich Fromm was a German psychoanalyst, sociologist and philosopher of Jewish origin. By combining psychoanalytic thought with a Marxist framework, he examines the psychological state of the individual and the effects of social structures on the individual. He analyzes the relationship between the inner worlds of individuals and social conditions.
In his book Escape from Freedom, he discusses the fear that individuals have of freedom and how this fear is related to their tendency to turn towards authoritarian systems. In his work The Art of Loving, he argues that love can be learned as an action and skill. For him, love forms the basis of human relationships and is an indicator of social health.
Fromm emphasizes that human nature develops as a social being. While individuals are shaped by social norms and values, they also have the capacity to question and transform these norms. He has analyzed how the consumer society affects individuals' search for identity and happiness. Fromm examined the tensions between the freedom of the individual and social structures, questioning how individuals are shaped in a social context and how they can become free in this context.
HABERMAS (1929- )
Jürgen Habermas was a German philosopher. Habermas is known for the concept of the ‘public sphere’. This concept refers to the area where individuals can freely discuss and form public opinion. He emphasizes the importance of this area in modern democratic societies.
Habermas developed the theory of communicative action and examined the role of language and communication in social interaction. Communicative action is defined as the effort of individuals to create common meaning. Habermas associates rationality not only with scientific and technical knowledge, but also with social interaction and communication. In this context, he developed the concept of critical rationality. Democracy means social participation and individuals having equal right of expression
Habermas also addresses ethical issues in a social context, critically examines the rationalization process of modern societies, analyzes the effects of modernization on individuals and social change processes. He criticizes postmodern thought, and expresses his concerns, especially about communication and the loss of meaning. For him, communication and social ties are of great importance.
BENJAMIN (1892-1940)
Walter Benjamin was a German philosopher. He has made significant contributions to the fields of literary criticism, art theory and cultural criticism. He draws attention to the liberating and progressive potential of art, and emphasizes that art should be for society. He examines how works of art are transformed by mechanical production in capitalism, and the social and political effects of this change.